Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana

(Institute of Vraja Art and Culture)

The region of Vraja offers rich fields for research into art, literature, music and other cultural aspects. Centered on the temple towns of Vrindaban and Mathura in northwestern Uttar Pradesh, Vraja is one of India's foremost pilgrimage centers which owes its religious and cultural importance to a number of factors. Being the sacred location of the legendary spots associated with the childhood games and pastimes of Lord Krishna, Vraja gained cultural significance from the 16th century onwards, when the Bengali saint Shri Caitanya and his followers identified and re-established the site now known as Vrindaban. Today, Vraja is the center of Krishna worship that attracts every year thousands of devotees from all over India.

The self-manifest lord

Shri Shri Radharamana

The chief tenet of Vaishnavism is bhakti, devotion to God as a personal deity. The bhakti religion emphasizes an emotional relationship between man and God, which is achieved and maintained through the aesthetic experience of the divine. One of the principal features of Vaishnava bhakti is the preferred usage of vernaculars in place of Sanskrit, which led to the development of rich traditions of devotional poetry in regional languages. Starting with a group of Tamil poets known as the Alvars in the 6th century A.D., during the following ten centuries, the bhakti tradition spread all over India. The earliest Vaishnava sampradayas originated in the south, but during the 15th and 16th centuries the followers of these Vaishnava communities felt increasingly attracted by the legendary region of Vraja, hence they established their new religious centers in Vraja. The region of Vraja maintains significance not only for its religious and legendary associations, but also for its language: the Vrajabhasha dialect of Hindi, the native language of Vraja, is the foremost language of devotional poetry and literature in northern India. Since the Vaishnavite tradition promoted the usage of regional languages, from the 15th century onwards, a rich tradition of devotional poetry in Vrajabhasha and, along with the poetic practice, an important tradition of devotional music began to flourish in Vraja. Music, literature and fine arts have acquired their fixed place in the daily and seasonal ritual practice of the temples and religious communities.

Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana is an independent academic institute for the documentation, promotion and propagation of the arts, the cultural, literary and religious traditions of Vraja, which dedicates itself to the preservation of the cultural heritage of this region. The scope of Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana expands from the geographically complete survey of festivals representing the arts and the cultural life in Vraja, the study of Vraja's place in the Puranas and in history, to the comprehensive survey of Vraja's literary, performing and fine art traditions.

The institution has its head office at Vrindaban. The establishment of a physical complex comprising office, audio-visual archives, library, exhibition and seminar rooms as well as units for residence and study to accommodate visiting scholars is currently under way. At a later stage, facilities for conferences, cultural programs and presentation of the performing arts are planned to be provided. Departments in smaller, yet culturally significant locations within Vraja would amend the basic establishment at a longer perspective.

The documentation conducted by Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana is based on recently commencing projects. The main body of the documentation consists of material collected since 1994, while earlier materials are being used according to availability.

Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana is open to all scholars and students wishing to become immersed in the study of Vraja culture. With the establishment of Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana, it is intended to create a place of learning and a source of knowledge for Vraja scholars from all parts of the world. Visiting scholars shall be offered assistance in their fieldwork, such as providing contact to local informants and accompanying the scholars on field trips within Vraja. Students may find academic guidance by the members of the institute. Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana shall provide facilities for both fieldwork and deskwork, the latter including a library and an audio-visual archive.

The temple of Radharamana in Vrindaban, founded during the 16th century by Gopala Bhatta, one of the celebrated Six Gosvamis and author of the Haribhaktivilasa, offers the unique opportunity for a broad study of a so far almost unexplored musical tradition. Resulting from a widespread but false opinion that the musical practice of the Caitanya Sampradaya remains restricted to nama kirtana in Bengali style, the rich musical and poetic heritage of this sampradaya has been largely ignored and excluded from scholarly research. The association of the Caitanya Sampradaya with both Vraja and Bengal led to the development of parallel traditions of devotional poetry in Vrajabhasha and Bengali, that are represented in the daily ritual practice at the temple of Radharamana in a fascinating combination. Ashtayama seva the respective periods of the day. The verses are contained in manuscripts handed down in the families of the gosvamis; up to now, no printed textbook has been compiled and published. Special performances of samajagayana are held on the occasion of major festivals such as Janmashtami, Holi and vaishaka purnima (the appearance day of the deity of Radharamana).

Publication is envisaged as a seven-volume monograph under the title Songs of worship. A musical anthology of the temple of Radharamana in Vrindaban, each volume to be accompanied by a compact disc of musical examples as well as a compact disc of color photographs / video clippings.

The art of sañjhi constitutes an ancient branch of temple art practiced in the North Indian region of Vraja, which evolved from the folk tradition and received its present shape during the mediaeval period. The sañjhi is a visual design prepared from dry colors, and resembles in its structure and symbolism the mystic diagrams of early Hinduism, whose veneration preceded the cult of image worship. Given the rôle of the Vraja region as a stronghold of the Vaishnava branch of Hinduism and its predominant association with Lord Krishna, one of the principal deities in the Hindu pantheon, it is only natural that the art of sañjhi takes Krishna mythology for its principal theme. The original rural custom intended for the veneration of a folk deity persists as a parallel branch of the sañjhi tradition.

The preparation of sañjhi designs is entrusted to professionally trained artists belonging to the priestly community. Sañjhis are created and worshiped as part of a fortnightly autumnal festival celebrated throughout the Vraja region. The visual aspect is expanded by performances of devotional music rendered to accompany the display of the designs. The art of sañjhi has found a rich response in the devotional literature, music and theatre of Vraja. A parallel tradition of creating sañjhi designs as permanent works of art in the form of paintings in watercolors has been established by the temples.

Like many traditional art forms of India, the art of sañjhi is currently on the verge of extinction with only few competent artists remaining. Lack of financial resources as well as of public interest and awareness are the principal reason for a continuous decline of the tradition during the part decades. With this situation in mind, as well as in view of the almost complete absence of scholarly inquiries into the sañjhi tradition, the present project pursues the dual objective of bringing to light the underlying concepts, history, structure and interdisciplinary implications of the art of sañjhi, and at the same time encouraging the re-vitalization of the sañjhi practice by way of knowledge dissemination and raising public awareness about this endangered art form. The authors of the project thereby hope to benefit from their practical affiliation with the tradition as sañjhi artist respectively temple singer.

The goals of the project are intended to be accomplished on a three-fold level addressing both the academic community and the general public by way of (1) publication of a monograph, (2) exhibition-cum-performance program, and (3) preparation of a documentary on the art of sañjhi. While the book targets in the first place artists and scholars of Indian art and related subjects, the documentary is envisioned as an informative source for both specialists and members of the public. The presentation program is designed for lay audiences including art lovers from outside the Vraja region, who may not have otherwise opportunities to obtain a life experience of this rare art form in its original cultural matrix; the program intends to both inform its audiences and provide them with an aesthetic experience.

Through the project, it is intended to make the art of sañjhi known beyond the borders of Vraja, both nationally and internationally. Increase of knowledge potentially stimulates a general interest in the survival and re-vitalization of the ancient art form, while at the same time providing the representatives of the tradition with new incentives for the pursuance of their art, thus facilitating the contribution of the present project to the concrete efforts for the revival and maintenance of the sañjhi tradition in order to preserve this unique cultural heritage for generations to come.

Every person has his own individual perception of the intangible transcendental reality referred to by different names and approached in different manners in the manifold traditions of faith and spiritual thought all over the world. Religion, regardless of its various institutional formations, is an intrinsically personal quest of man, characterized by the existence of as many streams of thinking as there are human beings. What is more, everybody seeks to express his ideas about the Supreme Being in his own specific ways and through the medium most suitable to him.

In this manner, the artist too possesses an imagination of his own which he expresses through colors and lines. It is these very colors and lines that enable the artist to endow his notion of the universal truth with manifest shape. The artist's work thus becomes an immediate revelation of that supreme transcendental energy which has touched upon his experience, which he knows, worships, holds sacred, which he loves and which he realizes as God, as his personal divinity. Every person's divinity dwells as an inherent presence in the respective individual's creative imagination. The artist, on his part, reveals this inner divinity to the public through the medium of his artistic skills, making visible the invisible concept of the mind by creating a tangible image of an intangible idea.

The present series of twenty-four miniature paintings on the theme of 'Imagination of the Divine' intends to explore the different notions about the Divine Being existing in the mind of the people. Emphasis shall be made on the tradition of spiritual thinking associated with the cultural matrix of Vraja, reflected in the rich repertoires of mediaeval devotional poetry from the region. The divinity is thereby envisaged in diverse aspects, each of which is associated with its own specific sentiment. Different emotions are evoked by different visualizations; thus, a depiction of the Divine Child would call forth feelings of parental love, while the portrayal of the Divine Couple recalls the sweet sentiment of conjugal love. Again a representation of the lord in His universal grandeur may incite awe and veneration.

The multitude of emotional shades implied in the poets' individual imagination about the Supreme Divinity opens up a vast field of creative inspiration, twenty-four glimpses of which are intended to be captured on paper in the proposed series of miniatures.

The Divine Couple

Miniature painting in Vraja style by Saurabh Goswami

The art of sañjhi is an indigenous art form pertaining to the Vraja region in northwestern Uttar Pradesh. Rooted in an ancient folk ritual, sañjhi was adopted by the Vaishnava tradition and developed into a highly refined temple art during the 15th/16th centuries. The sañjhi is an octagonal design made of dry colors upon an earthen platform. Rich in mystic symbolism, the sañjhi design depicts an image of the divine couple Krishna and Radha at its core, while artfully interlocked ornamental patterns represent the expansion of divinity towards the eight directions. The preparation of sañjhis forms part of a fortnight-long autumnal festival, during which new designs are created every day. While the sañjhi itself is a temporary work of art, lasting for only a few hours of display after a whole day of effort invested into its preparation, the art of sañjhi has been given permanent shape in a parallel tradition of miniature painting in watercolors on paper. The sañjhi paintings are structured in the same manner as the sañjhi designs, with a concrete depiction at the center and a surrounding array of patterns.

Today the art of sañjhi has become very rare and faces acute threat of extinction. With the prime intention of preserving and propagating this ancient art, the present project proposes a number of components designed to facilitate the dissemination of the art forms of sañjhi as well as of the related practice of miniature painting in Vraja style through both creative and academic pursuits. In the concrete, three aspects of the project have been identified which may serve the purpose of disseminating the art of sañjhi -

Sanjhi is a traditional art pertaining to the region of Vraja in northwestern Uttar Pradesh, the homeland of Lord Krishna and stronghold of Vaishnavism which is well-known for its rich and colorful cultural heritage. The roots of sanjhi rest in an ancient folk custom. ‘Sanjhi’, a vernacular derivation from ‘sandhya’, ‘evening’, was originally worshiped as a goddess by the unmarried young girls from Vraja seeking the boon of obtaining a suitable husband. The practice of creating images of the folk deity made of cowdung and flowers on walls and venerated at evening time is continued in the villages of Vraja to the present day.

Inspired by the folk tradition, the Vaishnava temples took up the rural concept of sanjhi and transformed the plain, naturalistic images into a highly sophisticated art form while at the same time embedding the sanjhi theme in the Puranic matrix of Krishnaite mythology. This development, which commenced about the 15th/16th centuries along with the establishment of Vraja as a Vaishnava spiritual center, has resulted in the birth of a fascinating new art which, in spite of its obvious parallels with the practice of rangoli flourishing in rural areas in various parts of India, distinguishes itself by its high degree of artistic perfection coupled with profound mystic symbolism. Sanjhi worship as a spiritual concept is linked to mandala upasana in early Hinduism and Tantrism. The temple sanjhi, based upon the Krishna theme, displays a concrete depiction of the divine couple Krishna and Radha as the embodiment of the supreme essence of divinity at its core, surrounded by artfully interlocked ornamental patterns representing the expansion of divinity towards the eight directions.

The principal type of temple sanjhi is prepared from dry colors upon an octagonal earthen platform symbolizing an eight-petalled lotus: the mandala at whose center the Vaishnava perception visualizes Lord Krishna. The hauda (hrida or ‘heart’) of the sanjhi constitutes the sanctum sanctorum, encircled by decorative patterns created with the help of stencils. Further types of temple sanjhi are prepared from dry colors on water and beneath water; flower sanjhis too are common. The creation of a sanjhi design, which requires considerable time and effort, is entrusted to specifically trained professional artists associated with the temple tradition as hereditary Brahman priests.

The art of sanjhi, which is practiced as part of a fifteen-day autumnal festival held during the dark half of Ashvin (September-October) has found an eloquent response in the traditions of devotional literature, music and theatre in Vraja. The display of a sanjhi design is generally accompanied by musical performances in the Vaishnava temple music styles known as samajagayana and haveli sangeet featuring verses of devotional poetry pertaining to the seasonal sanjhi repertoire. Rasalila theatre enacts the sanjhi theme in a play called ‘sanjhi lila’. Both literature and devotional theatre have interwoven the folk ritual with Vaishnava mythology, speaking of Radha and her companions preparing for worship of the goddess Sanjhi.

Like many traditional art forms, the art of sanjhi has been affected by significant tendencies of decline over the past decades. Lack of sponsorship coupled with a general decrease of interest in and knowledge about the traditional arts count among the main factors for this decline. At present, a mere three temples at Vrindaban have been able to sustain the art of sanjhi as part of their seasonal liturgies. Out of these, one tradition — the widely famous sanjhi practice at the ancient temple of Radharamana — has been disrupted since 1994 for lack of funding. This is the more regrettable as skilled artists are there who are more than willing to re-initiate the tradition, but find themselves unable to meet the required costs out of their limited personal resources. After 1994, the original fifteen-day annual schedule of sanjhi creation at the temple of Radharamana has been replaced by sporadic arrangements of sanjhi preparation for a maximum of five days during some years whenever a little funding could be raised, but the continuity of the tradition has been broken. Besides the temples, sanjhi is being practiced on a small scale at a few domestic sanctuaries. On the whole, however, the tradition has slipped into oblivion even in Vaishnava communities with a once flourishing practice.

Starting from the immediate need of the hour to prevent the situation from further deteriorating and to preserve and re-vitalize the dying art form, the present project proposes to introduce the art of sanjhi to a wider range of people with the ultimate aim to raise the level of public awareness and interest so as to enable the re-integration of the tradition into the cultural life of Vraja. The project thereby combines both artistic and academic pursuits. In the concrete, the following goals are envisaged —

Efforts related to the goals of the present project are currently under way, including the presentation of exhibition-cum-demonstration programs, preparation of painting series, audio-visual documentation of the art of sanjhi, as well as preliminary research activity for the monograph preparation. At present, all these efforts are financed entirely out of personal resources without a stable source of funding.

Caitanya-lila, also known as gaura-lila or gauranga-lila, is a form of religious drama in the rasalila style of Vraja, which depicts episodes from the life of Shri Caitanya. In its structural arrangement, the caitanya-lila of Vraja represents a parallel to the rasalila, comprising an initial samkirtana-rasa followed by a one-act play. The internal structure and the sequence of constituent components are likewise similar to that of the rasalila. The plays are relatively modern, based on texts in Vrajabhasha and rendered in the musical style of the Vaishnava temples known as haveli samgita. The musical survey of caitanya-lila intends to follow the outline presented in the earlier account of rasalila published in 1998 (see section 'publications', below).

Samajagayana, the congregational singing of devotional verses, is an indigenous art form of Vraja practiced in the Vaishnava temples at set times, either every day or on specific festive occasions. The Vaishnava communities of Vraja, in particular the Haridasi, Radhavallabha, Nimbarka and Caitanya Sampradayas, have developed their own characteristic styles of samaja singing, that can be distinguished on the basis of poetic repertoires, types of musical composition, treatment of the songs in performance as well as melodic treatment. The ragas sung in samajagayana correspond nominally to those of North Indian classical music, but only in the Caitanya Sampradaya (and to a certain extent also in the Nimbarka Sampradaya) they are sung in their pure classical form. The musicians of the Radhavallabha Sampradaya have modified some of the traditional raga structures in order to avoid complicated melodic turns that may obstruct the clear pronunciation of the words, whereas in the Haridasi Sampradaya, the ragas were reduced to formalized melodic models. Since most textbooks for samajagayana indicate the ragas in which the respective verses are to be sung, comparison between the theoretical indications and the sung melodies is essentially facilitated. The lexicographic survey intends to describe the main features of the ragas commonly sung in samajagayana separately for each sampradaya, and short musical examples of compositions shall be quoted in notation to illustrate the description.

'Haveli samgita', literally 'music of the haveli-type temples', is the term which in popular present-day usage denotes the musical style of daily singing practiced in the temples of the Vallabha Sampradaya between Vraja and Maharashtra. Different from other Vaishnava sampradayas, the Vallabhite tradition has maintained a practice of daily musical performances (referred to as nitya kirtana) to accompany every single ritual act throughout the liturgical cycle with appropriate verses of devotional poetry. The musical compositions are set to ragas associated with the time at which the verses are sung. The repertoire of songs of haveli samgita, textually based on the rich heritage of Vrajabhasha devotional poetry, contains a wide range of compositions for every single occasion within the daily and annual ritual cycles, and different musical compositions exist for one and the same verse not only in different branches of the haveli samgita tradition, but even within the repertoire of one and the same singer. The project intends to document and thereby preserve a large number of musical compositions sung in the daily temple service throughout the year, which shall be reproduced in notations transcribed from sound recordings. A series of compositions sung by senior haveli samgita singer Svami Harivallabha-ji of Govardhan (recorded in 1996) shall form the initial basis for a comprehensive documentation of musical compositions pertaining to the Mathura tradition of haveli samgita.

The dhrupada style is considered to be the oldest and most sacred genre of North Indian vocal music. Having been the predominant genre at the Mughal courts, dhrupada suffered continuous decline from the 17th century onwards, a process which continued to the middle decades of the present century, when a revival of the dhrupada genre was initiated. The project intends to recapitulate the development of the dhrupada tradition over the past approximately thirty years on the basis of recordings ranging over this period. The observation will be based on the two major exponents of dhrupada style of the present, namely the Dagar and Darbhanga traditions. The analysis will focus on performance practice, oral transmission, dhrupada texts and aspects of spirituality and performance, the latter concentrating upon elements of spirituality reflected in the performance of dhrupada. Two components will be of particular interest: first, the texts whose topics are taken mainly from Hindu mythology and refer to a devotional or philosophical theme, and second, the musical performance which is in itself an exemplary manifestation of fundamental philosophical principles. In this context, a detailed survey of and comparison with the devotional dhrupada of the Vaishnava temples of Vraja will form a significant component of the study.

The region of Vraja is widely known for its abundance of cultural, literary and artistic traditions embedded in the framework of an ancient and legend-laden history. Given its historical and mythological associations, Vraja is naturally dominated by Krishnaite Vaishnavism, but the region nevertheless exposes religious and communal diversity which becomes reflected in a multitude of cultural traditions especially in rural areas. Music and the performing arts, because of their close association with devotional religion, form a prominent part of the rich cultural heritage of Vraja. Thus, traditions of music, dance and theatre have found their permanent place in both the day to day devotional life in Vraja as well as in annually recurring festive celebrations. Festivals and religious fairs represent one of the most significant factors for communal harmony in the region, because they act as unifying events in which members of different castes, communities and faiths are likewise welcome. The impact of festival celebrations is felt to the largest extent in rural Vraja, where the spirit of local togetherness is valued above communal differences. Participation in presentations of music and performing arts on the occasion of festivals is open to all, and interestingly local mythology even provides grounds for communal integration by emphasizing the local aspect of the myth rather than the sampradaya-specific religious aspect.

The present project intends to document and analytically assess the rôle and function of music and the performing arts in the establishment of communal interaction in the cultural matrix of the Vraja region. Possible differences in communal behavior in rural respectively urban areas will be of interest as well as the impact of different art forms and their performance context. Emphasis will be given to social manners at festival time, and to peculiarities that may arise under the influence of specific types of music, dance, or drama. Participant observation, audio-visual documentation, and interviews with locals from different cultural, social and religious backgrounds will provide information about and insights into the communal functioning of Vraja society.

This project, which was initiated in 1989 by the late Professor Josef Kuckertz in collaboration with the Regional Resources Centre for Folk Performing Arts, Udupi, under the title 'Songs of the Brahmans in Karnataka', intends to collect recordings of devotional songs ascribed to the haridasa composers of the 13th to 17th centuries. These songs, originally composed to be presented in the divine service in the Vaishnava temples of Karnataka, have been preserved in the families of the Madhva Brahmans to the present day, and the compositions are still sung for ritual purposes at domestic sanctuaries. It is hoped that the analysis of the haridasa songs will throw light on structure and development of South Indian classical music prior to the 18th century, in particular on the raga melodies as well as on musical form, and thereby to close informative gaps in written South Indian music history. An extensive documentation has been already conducted, and first analytical results are available; further efforts are now directed at the completion of both fieldwork and analytical assessment and on the publication of the results obtained. The project is regarded as a useful supplement to the documentation of North Indian Vaishnava music, providing essential information about parallel traditions in the south.

A continuous audio-visual documentation of the major seasonal celebrations at the temple of Radharamana in Vrindaban has been carried out since Janmashtami 1994. This includes audio recording of the samaja performances held for Janmashtami, Holi and Vaishakha Purnima, as well as a photographic documentation of the celebrations on festive days. The schedules of daily and seasonal liturgies have been audio-visually recorded. Video documentation is being conducted since 2001.

Full sequences of rasalila and caitanya-lila performances for the Holi and Janmashtami festivals by the companies of Svamis Shriram Sharma and Fatekrishna Sharma have been recorded and documented photographically since 1995, likewise an ashtayama lila series held by the troupe of Svami Fatekrishna Sharma at Vrindaban in March 1997.

Audio recording of samaja and nitya kirtana performances in the major Vaishnava temples of Vraja has been carried out on a broad and continuous basis since January 1994, covering performances in the five major sampradayas represented in Vraja, and including temples and religious establishments such as the temples of Radharamana and Bhatta-ji (Caitanya Sampradaya), Radhavallabha (Radhavallabha Sampradaya), Naveli Vai ka Kuñja (Nimbarka Sampradaya) and Shri Svami Haridasa Seva Samsthana (Haridasi Sampradaya) in Vrindaban, and the temple of Dvarakadhisha (Vallabha Sampradaya) in Mathura. Further recordings were conducted in places such as Manasarovar, Barsana, Kaman (Rajasthan) and at the haveli of Bala Krishna Lala in Surat, likewise at domestic sanctuaries in Vrindaban and Mathura. A considerable part of the performances was photographed. For all recordings, detailed verse indexes are provided. Video recording of samaja and nitya kirtana performances is being conducted since 2001.

The five-day celebrations following the festival of Radhashtami in Barsana and the surrounding villages, lasting from the eleventh day to the full-moon of Bhadrapada, were documented in September 1996. The celebrations, which include the performance of the burhi lila in Cikasauli/Sankari Khora near Barsana, take place on five successive days in locations such as Premasarovara, Uñcagaon, Cikasauli, Kadamba Khande, and conclude with the performance of the maharasa lila in Karahela on the full-moon day. The documentation so far done includes photography, audio recording and interviews with local informants.

For many years, the dhrupada tradition of North Indian classical music was represented in Vrindaban by Pandit Vidur Mallik, the head of the Darbhanga gharana until his death in 2002. Dhrupada performances by Pandit Vidur Mallik and his students, as well as dhrupada lessons, have been documented since January 1994, supplemented by studio recordings of senior disciples. Besides dhrupada of the Darbhanga gharana, numerous performances by leading exponents of other dhrupada traditions have been recorded.

Sanjhi - traditional art of Vraja

The Darbhanga tradition.

Dhrupada in the school of Pandit Vidur Mallik

by Selina Thielemann

Indica Books, Varanasi, 1997

ISBN 81-86569-01-4

Dhrupada is the oldest genre of North Indian classical vocal music, referred to by Indian musicians and music scholars with high respect as the fundamental style, the ancient and most sacred genre - the quintessence of North Indian art music. Despite its key function in the music history, dhrupada has assumed the rôle of a museum piece within the rich and colorful tradition of Hindustani classical music. Having been the predominant style at the Mughal court of Akbar in the second half of the 16th century, dhrupada suffered continuous decline from the 17th century onwards. The tendency started changing only by the middle of the present century when musicians, music scholars and other responsible individuals in India and abroad initiated various activities for the revival of the dhrupada genre. One of the few family traditions who maintained the art of dhrupada singing to the present day is the Mallik tradition associated with the royal court of Darbhanga in Northern Bihar. It was founded by two brothers named Radhakrishna and Karttarama around the middle of the 18th century. Being among the main exponents of dhrupada of the present, along with the Dagars, the Darbhanga tradition is continued today in two lineages. The most senior living musician of the Darbhanga gharana is Pandit Vidur Mallik of Vrindaban.

The present book offers insights into a variety of aspects of dhrupada performance in Darbhanga style, with focus on the branch of Pandit Vidur Mallik, and including research papers, interviews, and transcriptions of both traditional and modern dhrupada compositions of this tradition. The present account is the second book on the subject of dhrupada to be published in English language, and it is at the same time the first comprehensive account of dhrupada in the Darbhanga tradition.

Rasalila.

A musical study of religious drama in Vraja

by Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1998

ISBN 81-7024-864-7

Rasalila is a well-loved form of religious drama characteristic for and unique to the region of Vraja in northwestern Uttar Pradesh, one of India's foremost religious and cultural centers. The rasalila theatre of Vraja takes episodes from the childhood life of the Hindu god Krishna for its subject-matter; the central theme of the dramas is the enactment of the rasa, the circular dance performed by Krishna with the cowherd women of Vraja on an autumn full-moon night. The location of any of the episodes narrated in rasalila is Vraja, the homeland of Krishna which is also the homeland of the plays. The language of rasalila is Vrajabhasha, the principal language of north Indian literature and poetry, and the native dialect of Vraja. In its structure, rasalila represents a perfect combination of poetry, music, dance and drama. The characters of the rasalila are portrayed by child actors, Brahman boys of Vraja, who make visible the playful and spontaneous nature of Krishna’s childhood games. Vraja is famous for its rich traditions of devotional poetry and music. To the present day, the region has maintained strong links between the traditions of Vaishnava temple music and north Indian classical music. Rasalila, in its entirety, represents an ideal exponent of the great variety of musical styles in northern India, ranging from classical and semi-classical styles to genres belonging to the local folk music tradition of Vraja.

The present book offers the first comprehensive account of the musical elements of rasalila to be published in English language. The study, after providing a brief historical survey, focuses on in-depth analysis of the constituent musical components of the rasalila performance on the basis of examples from selected performances. All songs are transcribed into Indian and Western notations and subsequently discussed. The issues raised in the course of analysis are reconsidered in an interview with Svami Fatekrishna Sharma, one of the leading rasalila performers of the present, who offers his explanations from the insider's point of view. An extensive photographic documentation, displayed on 58 color plates, covers preparations for the performance, musical instruments, scenes behind the stage as well as the rasalila performance itself in its various parts and aspects.

Sounds of the sacred.

Religious music in India

by Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation

New Delhi, 1998

ISBN 81-7024-990-2

Music is a human activity which, in one form or another, is universally accepted and used as a mode of communication with the divine in the religious traditions all over the world, notwithstanding different concepts, contexts and attitudes that exist with regard to its rôle and understanding within particular theological systems. Music occupies its fixed place in ritual, prayer and sacrifice, but even when not used in specifically religious context, in everyday life, music tends to be associated with concepts and convictions emerging from the divine service, with ideas about God, creation and salvation. As a vehicle for the praise of God, music becomes the common denominator for all religions, because music is the most direct and the most immediate expression of the human quest for religious fulfillment. Music is the primary expression of bhakti, devotion, which is the basic concept underlying all religions and shared by them as a common denominator. Being the ultimate expression of loving devotion, music becomes the primary vehicle to arouse the emotional experience of union with the divine. The phenomenon of music is deeply rooted in the religious life of man, for music inherits the energy that unites the positive forces of the universe and thereby leads to direct communication with the divine. From very ancient times, when man started feeling that there was something beyond himself and the material world, music took possession of his ideas: being non-touchable, non-material, yet omnipresent in the nature, music was the most direct incorporation of the beyond. Music is two-fold in its nature: it is blessing and offering at the same time - offered in ritual and sacrifice, it is again received as a divine gift.

The present book includes lectures and short essays related to one and the same theme: music as sacred in Indian religious traditions. Beginning with reflections on music in the context of different religions in India, the compilation continues with four chapters related to specific traditions of religious music: to the Bauls of Bengal, to Vaishnava temple music of Vraja, to the dhrupada genre of North Indian classical music, and to rasalila theatre of Vraja. The traditions of Vaishnava music and performing arts in Vraja are reconsidered in the sixth essay, a lecture dedicated to the memory of the author's academic teacher Prof. Dr. Josef Kuckertz. Following two more accounts of Vaishnava temple music and classical dhrupada respectively, the final section of the book is reserved for philosophical considerations and scriptural references to music. An appendix contains examples of Baul and Vaishnava devotional songs in Indian and Western notations.

The music of South Asia

by Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1999

ISBN 81-7648-057-6

Music in the South Asian cultural matrix is first of all characterized by its intrinsic link with religion as a living practice and experience. Though India is famous for its highly developed art music, the traditions of Indian classical music have always remained embedded in a devotional context, and the borderline between religious and art music is often fluent. Indian music theory has been essentially influenced by concepts of Indian philosophy, and ideas emerging from the divine service continue to bear effect upon the concrete shape taken by the music. South Asia distinguishes itself by a multitude of religious and cultural traditions, and bhakti, religious devotion, plays an important rôle in almost all of them. Since music represents the principal mode of human devotional expression, it is only natural that musical activity of one kind or another can be found on any level of South Asian society. A deeper comprehension of South Asian music, reaching beyond the mere acquaintance with theoretical and technical facts, requires full awareness of the religious background of this music which, in India, is perceived as a 'divine art'.

The present volume, which contains a series of lectures on the theme of South Asian music, intends to provide a general introduction to the music of South Asia in the form of handbook or reference work. The account is structured in such a way as to guide the newcomer systematically through the various aspects and areas of South Asian music, whereas insiders may dwell on those sections in which materials of current research and fieldwork experiences are presented. Thematic emphasis is laid on the basics of Indian music in the first part of the book, while the second part concentrates upon music as part of South Asian religious traditions as well as upon selected local musical practices. Beginning with reflections on the South Asian approach to music, the first part contains chapters on Sanskrit treatises and secondary literature, historical development, transmission, performance practice, musical instruments, scale and melody, rhythm and meter, musical compositions as well as musical forms and styles. The second part deals with music and devotional religion, with special emphasis on the North Indian Vaishnava temple music tradition, followed by specific chapters on regional musical traditions of Central and South India, Sri Lanka, Bengal, North India and Nepal, on tribal music, and on traditions of Indian theatre and classical dance. Three appendices contain additional papers on the transcription and analysis of Indian music. A separate bibliographic selection is provided for each chapter, and a comprehensive glossary defines the principal terms introduced in the chapters. Transcriptions of musical examples are provided in Western staff notation and partly in Indian notation.

Essays on Indian music

by Professor Josef Kuckertz

edited by Selina Thielemann

Indian Musicological Society

Bombay & Baroda

1999

This volume, which is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Dr. Josef Kuckertz, contains twelve selected articles by Professor Kuckertz on various facets of Indian music. The essays, presented here in English translation, focus on the aspect of music as part of religious traditions in India, as well as on regional and tribal musical cultures.

The reader obtains a general insight into the rich field of music in India in the first article, titled What is Indian music?, before specific traditions are discussed in more detail in the following papers. Article 2 takes different approaches to music in Hinduism and Islam for its subject-matter, article 3 inquires into the transmission of Purandara Dasa's kirtana songs, article 4 discusses the reciprocity of textual content and melodic expression in Tyagaraja's kriti compositions, article 5 examines bhajana songs from Karnataka. Folk song as well as semi-professional and rural-professional music from Karnataka and Maharashtra are the subject of articles 6 and 7, tribal music of articles 8 and 9. The final three essays deal with polyphony found among Himalayan tribes, with various types of Indian oboe, and with the transmission of the Samavedic hymns. The compilation is concluded with an article by Selina Thielemann on the rhythmic-metric structures of Sinhalese vannama dances, which was written in close association with Professor Kuckertz and on the basis of recordings made by him in Sri Lanka in 1972.

A detailed bibliography offers insights into Professor Kuckertz's outstanding scholarship and many-sided interest. And, in place of an extended biographical account, the lead article makes Professor Kuckertz himself speak about his academic career, the account being enriched by his personal experience.

Singing the praises divine.

Music in the Hindu tradition

by Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2000

ISBN 81-7648-165-3

Music and faith, the two fundamental aspects of man's spiritual experience, are closely entwined on many levels and interact in various different ways. In bhakti, devotional religion, music represents the essential prerequisite for the communication between the phenomenal and transcendental realms. Music is the tool to evoke spiritual oneness, fulfillment in union with the divine - the principal quest of man, which becomes reflected in a broad variety of religious activities aiming at establishing and continuously maintaining the personal bond with the divinity. Music hence advances to be the foremost mode of worship in the bhakti tradition. Among the manifold kinds of music, again, singing is attributed special significance in the context of the divine service, for song is the only form of musical expression capable of vocalizing and - through the medium of the sung word - verbalizing the praises of God. The verbal statement, in turn, derives its devotional power from the sounding vibration of the sung melody - no matter whether this melody confines itself to mere chant or expands into an artistically perfected musical construction. It is the musical offering, the melodious manifestation of the soul's longing for union, in which fulfillment is sought, and it is the tune emanating from the chord of the heart through which ultimately the divine presence is evoked - as the lord himself proclaims: naaham vasaami vaikunthe na yogi-hrdaye ravau, mad bhaktaa yatra gaayanti tatra tishthami narada - 'I dwell not in Vaikuntha, nor in the hearts of yogis, nor in the sun; where my devotees sing, there be I, Narada'.

This volume presents a selection of lectures and essays on the theme of music in the Hindu tradition, with special emphasis on song as a mode of worship in Vaishnava bhakti. Beginning with two general expositions to introduce the reader into the topic of music in the Indian religious matrix, the thematic focus then turns towards the practice of devotional music in Vraja, one of India's foremost pilgrimage centers. Aspects considered in this context include musical activities in the temples of Vrindaban, the seasonal cycle of devotional songs, implications of the daily liturgical cycle for the treatment of ragas, the rasalila dramas, as well as the musico-literary heritage of the Vraja region. The theme of musico-literary traditions and their transmission is taken up again in the discussion of the works of the Madhvaite Vaishnava poet-composers of Karnataka. A further essay considers aspects of music and space in temple music performances, while the concluding set of articles is reserved for the dhrupada tradition of North Indian classical and devotional music.

Musical traditions of Vaishnava temples in Vraja

by Selina Thielemann

2 volumes

Sagar Printers & Publishers, New Delhi, 2001

ISBN 81-7123-070-9

The region of Vraja, centered on the temple towns of Vrindaban and Mathura in northwestern Uttar Pradesh, is one of India's foremost pilgrimage centers. As the location of the legendary places associated with the childhood games and pastimes of Lord Krishna, Vraja developed into a stronghold of Vaishnava bhakti which is naturally rich of musical traditions. The bhakti religion emphasizes the emotional relationship between man and God, which is achieved and maintained through the aesthetic experience of the divine. Such an experience is evoked primarily through music and singing which, therefore, have always played a predominant rôle in Vaishnavite traditions, and whose significance is scripturally manifested in the Bhagavata Purana. Since the Vaishnava bhakti movement promoted the use of regional languages in place of Sanskrit, from the 15th century onwards, a rich tradition of devotional poetry in Vrajabhasha began to flourish in Vraja. Along with the poetic tradition, the musical practice of samajagayana, congregational singing of devotional poetry in the temples, became established. Samajagayana, conveniently shortened samaja, is an indigenous and peculiar tradition of Vraja which, unlike other types of Vaishnava music, became barely known and recognized outside its region of origin. Samajagayana is reserved exclusively for temples and places of worship, hence it is accessible only to the limited circle of those present in the respective location at the time of performance. In distinction to other forms of devotional music, samajagayana never made its way on the concert stage.

The present book, a comparative study of the tradition of congregational singing in the Vaishnava temples of Vraja and the classical dhrupada tradition, investigates the historical and structural connections between Vaishnava temple music and North Indian classical music and points at those musical categories on either side that provide the link between the two traditions. The study is structured in three parts covering the samaja and dhrupada traditions and their comparison respectively, preceded by a general introductory survey of the bhakti tradition, consideration of the rôle of music in several non-Hindu and non-Vaishnava traditions and demonstration of the theological and philosophical foundation of the rôle and function of music in Vaishnava bhakti given in scriptures. Regarding the Vaishnava temple music tradition of Vraja, the present survey is the first of its kind to be written in a European language. It covers the practice of samajagayana in the Caitanya, Radhavallabha, Nimbarka and Haridasi Sampradayas as well as the practice of daily temple singing of the Vallabha Sampradaya referred to as 'haveli samgita'. The account given on more than 900 pages is supplemented by a large number of musical examples transcribed into both Indian notation and Western staff notation, a photographic documentation displayed on 48 color plates, as well as a Vrajabhasha glossary provided at the end of the book.

The spirituality of music

by Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2001

ISBN 81-7648-249-8

Music is generally known and perceived as a phenomenon of sound, as a well-arranged construction of organized sounds created so as to appeal to the aesthetic consciousness of man. The sounding artifact, however, is but the outer body of the musical reality. And this outer cover would be utterly useless and dead if it were not indwelled by a living soul, by the driving energetic force which enlivens the sounding structure and fills it with sweetness - with the sweetness of music. Of what kind is this innate spirit? Which is the spiritual essence of music? What is it that turns sound into music, and music into an experience of overwhelming bliss? It is joy - the joy that is born out of the union of two imaginative forces in the cosmic cycles of creation. It is joy nourished by the quest of universal love, joy that is established ever again in a continuous process of losing and attaining. It is joy that is infinite in its nature but finite in its revelations. It is joy that manifests itself in beauty and carries at its core the spark of intrinsic harmony from which arises all creativity - and all music. Joy is thus the quintessence of music, the inner spirit that qualifies a procession of notes as a melody, the vital soul that transforms an array of sounds into music.

Much has been written about music as a sounding reality, about its theory and structure, technicalities, special characteristics and underlying meaning. Musicological studies are of essential significance for the understanding of music in its structural, historical and cultural context, but such inquiries can never reach beyond the material phenomenon of music - beyond the outer body of the musical construction. The present book, however, aims at the inner soul, hence its approach towards music as a philosophical rather than physical entity. The essays are accordingly centered around music as a cosmic energy and its rôle and function in the universal game plan of creation. The first three chapters deal with music as such - with its inherent qualities, its dialectic disposition and its essence of infinity. The next following considerations are directed at music in relation to other cosmic energies, while the final three essays discuss music as a spiritual activity. The theoretical argument, wherever appropriate, has been enriched with poetic quotes reflecting the spirit of the Bauls of Bengal, a community of mendicant singers who live their religion through music.

Divine service and the performing arts in India

by Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2002

ISBN 81-7648-333-8

Music and singing represent well-established ritual tools in religious traditions all over the world. In the South Asian cultural sphere, music constitutes moreover a most vital and indispensable component in every branch of the performing arts, be it dance, or theatre, or other types of dramatic enactment. Tied into an homogeneous whole by the bond of music, the performing tradition has therefore found its fixed place in rituals and liturgies anywhere in the religious life in India. While the spiritual power of music is acknowledged and effectively employed in the religious practice no matter whether ritualistic or devotional, it is devotional religion in particular which utilizes the intrinsic emotional energy concealed in the sounding reality. Music as a liturgical instrument functions in two principal modes, that is, as a medium to establish the contact between man and the aspired divinity, and as the channel into which man releases his overflow of emotions called forth at the touch of the divine. All performing arts moreover serve as offerings made to the divinity in the same manner as one would perhaps offer food, or light, or incense — the only difference resting in the fact that an offering of music or dance exceeds by far any offering of material goods in virtue and ritual effectiveness.

The present book consists of a number of essays related to the theme of music and the performing arts as part of the divine service in Indian religious traditions, with emphasis on devotional religion and specifically on devotional Vaishnavism. Besides providing some basic insights into the integration of the various performing traditions into the ritual schedule of the Vaishnava temples, the thematic focus is directed at the theoretical purport for the significance of music, dance and acting as liturgical tools outlined in Vaishnava theology, as well as at the spiritual weight of music in larger philosophical dimensions. Dance is treated separately in a single essay, again from the viewpoint of its historical and practical association with the traditions of temple art throughout India. Since dance and theatre are brought to life in essence through the union of their aural and visual components — as distinct from ‘pure’ music which is based on a primarily aural experience -, a small selection of colored photographs has been included in the compilation to suggest an impression of the extraordinarily rich and multifarious cultural heritage maintained by the Indian religious tradition.

Baul Philosophy

by Baul Samrat Purna Das and Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2003

ISBN 81-7648-409-1

The Bauls of Bengal, widely known for their music which constitutes an important tool on the path of self-realization, can be regarded as the representatives of the Religion of Man - of the religion of humanity whose highest divinity is the human being. Baul philosophy embraces the positive streams of numerous faiths and philosophies, recognizing the ultimate unity of the Supreme Being whose eternal abode rests within man, at the core of the human heart. The Bauls therefore strive for attainment to the Supreme Divinity within their own inner being, referring to the divine truth as the Man of the Heart who sits enshrined in the temple which is the human body. Through their songs the Bauls articulate the matters pertaining to their spiritual quest, outlining the path of accomplishment in simple yet deeply meaningful words. The Baul thus is much more than the skillful singer-dancer for whom the public takes him at a superficial glance: the Baul is an ardent striver for the ultimate truth, a great thinker, a philosopher whose immense and profound knowledge has been attested on the touchstone of human spiritual experience.

The present book offers for the first time an insight into the spiritual aspect of Baul culture in which the tenets of the Baul's spiritual search are revealed from the insider's point of view. From the basic level to increasingly intricate stages, the procedures and methods of questing as well as their inner signification are introduced one after the other in systematic progression. The essentials of sadhana, of the journey towards realization are explained in easy language so as to make them comprehensible to anyone interested in the processes of human spiritual emancipation. Baul philosophy as such represents an open-minded spiritual tradition, an ocean of human spiritual thinking in which the many rivers embodying diverse religions are brought to confluence in perfect harmony in one single faith called the religion of man. It is this intrinsic integrity of a philosophy that elevates man to the highest seat, realizing that the sought-after treasure rests in each and every human being, which makes Baul sadhana a spiritual approach of universal relevance. The tenets of Baul philosophy, if settled in the minds of all humans, are capable of extending exceedingly beneficial effects upon mankind as a whole, guiding man towards fulfillment of his utmost quest and bestowing upon humanity the gift of peace, of joy, of bliss and all-encompassing harmony.

Samgita-sadhana

The path of human oneness

by Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation

New Delhi, 2003

ISBN 81-7648-474-1

The phenomenal presence of music is often regarded solely as an entertaining enjoyment designed for outward perception by the human senses. In its perfect transcendent personality, however, music embodies more than the delightful pastime it represents on the surface. Music is in essence a spiritual activity directed at the inward spheres of the human emotional consciousness, hence music, if earnestly practiced, signifies a spiritual exercise rather than a mere artistic skill. It is therefore not surprising that music counts among the foremost and indispensable constituents of sadhana, of spiritual striving for the object of attainment to the Supreme. In India, the execution of music as part of the spiritual practice is known as samgita-sadhana ('sadhana through music'), referring to both music as part of liturgical worship, and music as part of the individual striver's way of spiritual questing. The most important advantage of music over other spiritual procedures and methods of divine service rests in its emotional profundity, which enables the striver engaged in the musical exercise to immerse himself fully and unconditionally into the stream of transcendental sweetness that carries him very speedily and in an uncomplicated manner to the aspired destination of his spiritual journey.

This book represents a compilation of selected essays originally delivered as lectures, all centered around the theme of music in the context of man's continuous endeavor for realization of the Highest Truth. The explications are based on concrete examples from the South Asian musico-spiritual tradition, with particular reference to Vaishnava liturgy as well as to the philosophy of the Bauls of Bengal. The latter aspect recurs in some detail in four out of the ten papers contained in the present collection, not at last because the singer-philosophers from Bengal have made music the principal element of their complex and intricate spiritual practice nourished by a comprehensive philosophy which, without exaggeration, deserves to be called the philosophy of humanity. All essays reproduced in this volume are essentially inspired by the Baul spiritual heritage, and in the concrete by the thoughts of the author's revered spiritual teacher, the renowned folk singer and philosopher Baul Samrat Purna Das.

Music and fine arts in the devotional traditions of India

Worship through beauty

by Saurabh Goswami and Selina Thielemann

APH Publishing Corporation

New Delhi, 2005

ISBN 81-7648-811-9

Art is the immediate manifestation of the human creative quest which, on its part, constitutes the aesthetic expression of spiritual thinking — the response of the beautiful to man’s intrinsic affinity towards the all-pervading energy of bliss whose subtle rays illuminate the universe in its every corner. It is more than a mere chance that the arts, at all times and in all parts of the world, emerged in close association with their surrounding streams of faith. Whichever the religious tradition - be it one of the great world religions or the simple, naturalistic belief of an aboriginal tribe, articulations of artistic character, of one kind or another, are certainly part of the ritual activity.

In India, religion has significantly inspired a cultural tradition which today counts among the crest-jewels of the millennia-old heritage of world culture. India’s music, dance, fine arts and dramatic arts are well-known and highly appreciated far beyond their native land. These gems of human creative striving took birth in the Hindu temples of ancient India, where they became the concrete revelations of the spiritual quest, the form-bearing embodiments of an abstract idea. Supported by the concepts of Indian philosophy, these arts developed into symbols of aesthetic perfection whose silent beauty provides the most eloquent evidence for the profundity of man’s ever-persistent longing for the divine.

The present compilation presents a number of independent articles held together by the thematic string of art as part of ritual worship and spiritual striving in traditions of devotional religion in India. Emphasis is laid on music and fine arts in the Vaishnava temples of Vraja, with recurring reference to the art of sañjhi which counts among the unique and nowadays very rare treasures of the Indian cultural heritage. Sañjhi is a form of visual art rooted in the folk tradition. Here the mergence of the current of folk spirituality into the ocean of Vaishnava devotionalism resulted in one of the most delightful expressions of artistic fullness, accomplishing the confluence of fine art, poetry and music in a manner so smooth and attractive as to make obvious the extraordinary rôle aesthetic beauty plays in the attainment of the spiritual quest.

The book, whose authors are actively involved in both the religious tradition and the practice of traditional art, is essentially inspired by the overwhelming presence of the divinity revealed through manifestations of beauty in the ancient arts of India. Those who ever had the opportunity to partake of the sublime experience of spiritual bliss evoked by an aesthetic satisfaction will know that beauty is indeed the core intent of all joy. To share this experience with the reader is one of the main objects of the present volume, along with the plea for the protection of man’s endangered cultural riches lest some of these most excellent arts slip into oblivion to be lost forever.

Vraja Kala Sanskriti Sansthana

Radharaman Ghera

Vrindaban - 281 121

Uttar Pradesh

India

phone +91 565 2455878, 2456102

fax +91 565 2456102